Women in Ancient Greece Essay Example

Women in Ancient Greece Essay Whereas married women seldom crossed the thresholds of their own front door, adolescent girls were lucky if they were allowed as far as the inner courtyard since they had to stay where they could not be seen well away even from the male members of the family. (Cohen p. 3-4) The social status of women during ancient Greece were found ranks below men and not treated as equals as they have no social standing nor bearing in the Grecian society. As the society is purely dominated by the male populous, the female citizens of ancient Greece were expected to be prim and proper and even as not being able to fraternize with their own very male member of their family. They are all segregated to avoid any other misconceptions of their honor and their purity as women. In the entirety of the Grecian culture, women’s stature somewhat differs from place to place depending on the region that they are in and as well as following cultural responsibilities that they are expected to abide. The social status of women in different parts of Greece greatly differs from one and the other. We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Ancient Greece specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Ancient Greece specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Ancient Greece specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The majority of Cycladic marble vessels and sculptures were produced during the Grotta-Pelos and Keros-Syros periods. Early Cycladic sculpture comprises predominantly female figures that range from simple modification of the stone to developed representations of the human form, some with natural proportions and some more idealized (Metmuseum, Par. 3). In the Cycladic era – Cycladic women were expected to rear and take care of their children. Harvesting of crops, tending to fruits and vegetables, tending to docile livestock, creating pottery, weaving, and spinning were most of the women’s duties. This has made a strong divide between the duties of both women and men – leaving the light duties to the women and the larger responsibilities to the men. â€Å"Cycladic Idol I† is a female figure standing. Made of resin and is roughly forty centimeters tall and fourteen centimeters in length. This piece was meticulously carved in parts of two dimensions as well as its curves in three dimensional aspects. Most of the artifacts found in this era is purely depicted by women rather than males. These idols, such as the one mentioned awhile ago, were used religiously as part of ceremonies, rituals, and funerals. The Minoan period was found in Crete. The Minoan culture predominantly shows the practice of worshipping goddesses which suggests that this culture had a high level of degree of respect towards women. This might be even exceeding the expectations of other cultures during that time. Most of the Minoan women were given religious offices and given positions in authority. This culture shows a great dependence on their female population as they needed a lot of future generations to sustain and ensure a future for their society. â€Å"Minoan Snake Goddess† circa 1600BCE, was thirty-four centimeters high and made of faience. This idol shows a woman elaborately dressed yet exposing both of her breasts. Her arms are wide apart and in both of her hands she is seen holding a snake in each fist. She is seen wearing a hat in the shape of a cat which could either be a lion sitting down or a leopard. She is seen wearing a full length skirt with seven flounces and a girdle. Her breasts are exposed as suggesting that she is a household goddess specializing with fertility. Yet as she is holding two snakes in her fists, these snakes depict male fertility. Normally, Minoan women are simply dressed but with this idol, it suggests that the women in those times were highly regarded. The Mycenaean period came to through the end of the late bronze-age. This period has women become chiefly concerned with religious rituals, rites, and ceremonies. Mycenaean women were alike with Minoan women in regards to their statutory rights, public duties, and religious offices. Mycenaean women were often seen as highly skilled, public administrators, and often played sports. As Minoan women were highly regarded, so as Mycenaean women were. As with â€Å"The Procession of Women† which is part of the late Helladic period, shows five women carrying offerings to one of their deities. (Thera Par. 13) More often than not, women recurrently appears as a higher form of being that most average Grecian women are expected to become, as most religious rites and ceremonies which are officiated generally by women as mediators to their faith. Male attendants are not commonly seen as part of those religious activities.† The fresco painting of â€Å"Saffron Gatherers† by Xeste III, found in Akrotiri. This was dated back as 1550-1450 BCE as part of the late Minoan era. In the Minoan era, women who are depicted as goddesses and deities are of equal rank as their male counterpart unlike those of their followers.   In this frieze, the women are depicted to gather saffron as part of a ritual or ceremony or it may be an offering to a beloved deity. This fresco also goes to show that equality between men and women can be achieved but it cannot say that it can transcend into the lives of their subjects. With these various art pieces, one may be able to tell that since early ancient Greece, women have become symbols of fertility, of the households, and lesser than men. Most of the Grecian beliefs do not entirely put down women, but they also deify idols and deities as per their cultural and superstitious beliefs. If one can notice that the role of women in ancient Greece has somewhat evolved in most parts than most. Like in Sparta and in Athens, Spartan women are expected to be strong as their husbands are and nearly as equal to men. With Athenian women, they are mere objects of desire that are given via contract to men who can be beneficial to the women’s family. In the Classical Greece period, Grecian women were regarded lesser than slaves and prostitutes. The latter were given certain liberties and freedom but not as much as Grecian Women. As for Athenian women, from child birth to coming of age, women are treated differently than their male counter parts. The girls are not taught to read and write but taught domestic skills such as spinning, cooking, and child rearing. Most of the girls are not excluded from participating in festivals, fairs, and religious rites in which they are a major part of the events. Arranged marriages are religiously fixed by the patriarch of the family, where in a marital contract is usually drawn and accompanied by dowry to be given to the bridegroom. The dowry is handled by the bride’s brother to ensure that if the husband dies, he is the one elected to find another husband for his sister. Women during those times were considered as objects and not as equals to men. (Women, Par. 4) â€Å"Lekythos† is a terracotta, black figure standing almost eighteen centimeters high and dated around 550CE 530CE. Normally a Lekythos is used for funerary purposes, but with this vessel shows a marriage scene that may have been a gift to a young bride to her wedding. Weaving as seen in the vessel depicts the domesticity and devoutly religious. This also shows the start and end of weaving done by women in classical Greece. This also goes for the following art piece: â€Å"Penelope at the Loom† dated 440BCE, shows Penelope distraught with Telemachus looking over as she tries to find ways to hinder her would be suitors in marrying her as Oddyseus has been long gone for quite awhile. This red figure depicts that a woman cannot continue on living without a husband at her side. In order to continue with tradition and the culture of the region, an abandoned wife must have a husband to carry over the affairs of the property as the woman does not have any rights or control over her husband’s properties – unlike their Spartan counterparts. â€Å"Warrior’s Departure†by Kleophon Stamnos has a young wife and an old mother at the departure of a warrior who is a son and a husband. The duty of the young wife to her husband must be fulfilled and she must wait until his return. If for some reason that he does not return, the young wife is bound to subservience to the husband’s family. In the art pieces, starting in the Cycladic period, the female pieces are predominant rather than male pieces yet male dominancy prevails. This goes through out to the classical period, Mycenaean, and Minoan period which the latter periods do show that women are equal in rights and in stature as men are as depicted by their deities. The art pieces mentioned above has shed some light as evidences and proofs that the role of women in ancient Greece has been elevated up to a certain extent. Norms depends on the societies that they found in. Over the period of years the stature of women has evolved into some form of equality between genders. Most historians and people might see that women were not equally treated right in ancient Greece. One must take note that the period that they were in was purely male-dominated and it was common belief (depending on the region that you are in) that women are supposed to be found inside houses and not on the streets. As liberties may be taken advantage of and a woman who is unaccompanied might be mistaken for a wanton. Ideally the perception of women in a male dominated world has been to safeguard the purity and sanctity of their female citizens. Women’s rights, roles, and statures, has been dictated by the period and norms that they currently live in.   During the early periods women were treated as objects as of no worth. Women are not allowed to be more learned than the men who should dominate in every arena that they can set foot onto. This generally happens except for certain parts in ancient Greece. It is highly unlikely that the stature of women should change, elevated to a much higher calling such as being part of highly religious ceremonies, rituals, and rites. That bestows upon then the exclusivity of such worship to be done by females. Overall, as the times have changed perceptions, norms, and way of thinking can change as seen over the periods in ancient Greece. Most of the people have accepted the way of life of different women in different parts of Greece but then again it really depends on the culture and traditions practiced in those regions. The status of women in that particular period was in a way beneficial for women as they are accepted into a male dominated society not as slaves but as prime objects of whose value is to cater to the needs and wants of man. In one point of view the art pieces show that the women’s status has gradually improved over many eras and to some elevated into god like statuses when it comes to religious rites and practices. It is a mixed review on how scholars and other historians see the status of women as to some, they were badly treated. To others, women were very well off in their positions as men. What one must do is o assess the person’s situation as per their status at those times. Even if Ancient Greece was purely male dominated, women were given measures of protection as to not to endanger themselves, the honor of her family, and to the entire community. If one uses contemporary beliefs and point of views to gauge the status of women back then – it would certainly fail and end up confusion, as liberties seen today were not practiced or even thought of at those periods. The correct analysis of these situations should have a sound and moral background. Norms, beliefs, and morals change over time, and some do. With the welfare of women in Grecian times, it certainly has come a long way from their meager subservience to being deified in religious halls of ceremonies.

Free Essays on Panic Disorder

The purpose of this paper is to understand Panic Disorder and symptoms, types of the disorder, treatment, and relation to other disorders and how it affects people in general. Included, is a case study of â€Å"Sarah† who suffered with a panic disorder. Panic Disorder is when someone experiences unexpected panic attacks followed by at least one month of persistent concern about having another panic attack, worrying about the possible consequences of the panic attacks, or a behavioral change related to the attacks (Millon, 1996, p.559). Panic Disorder is not a disease. It may be assessed, but not definitively diagnosed. This disorder is distressing and disabling, physically, psychologically, and socially (Harvard, 2000, p.1). One symptom of Panic Disorder is unexpected panic attacks. At least two panic attacks are required for diagnosis. Attacks may last from several seconds to several minutes. Doctors believe that every attack has a situational trigger and an essential feature (Morrison, 1995, p.402). Another symptom of the disorder is constant concern and worry. The most common trait found in all Panic Disorder patients is a fear of being embarrassed. When a person takes an attack once they are paranoid for up to three months about going into public for fear of taking another attack. People diagnosed with panic disorder experience great anticipation and are very anxious when they look forward. They often worry and think of the worst possible outcomes, and at night, nightmares often occur. Panic disorder patients often assume that they have an undiagnosed disease or think they are going crazy (Harvard, 2000, p.8). Sarah, also experienced severe anxiety in social situations. She had a terrible fear of having another attack, fear of losing consciousness, and a fear of embarrassment in social situations. Sarah had suffered in her sleep as well. Constant nightmares persisted, causing lack of sufficient sleep. Sarah felt she was going cra... Free Essays on Panic Disorder Free Essays on Panic Disorder The purpose of this paper is to understand Panic Disorder and symptoms, types of the disorder, treatment, and relation to other disorders and how it affects people in general. Included, is a case study of â€Å"Sarah† who suffered with a panic disorder. Panic Disorder is when someone experiences unexpected panic attacks followed by at least one month of persistent concern about having another panic attack, worrying about the possible consequences of the panic attacks, or a behavioral change related to the attacks (Millon, 1996, p.559). Panic Disorder is not a disease. It may be assessed, but not definitively diagnosed. This disorder is distressing and disabling, physically, psychologically, and socially (Harvard, 2000, p.1). One symptom of Panic Disorder is unexpected panic attacks. At least two panic attacks are required for diagnosis. Attacks may last from several seconds to several minutes. Doctors believe that every attack has a situational trigger and an essential feature (Morrison, 1995, p.402). Another symptom of the disorder is constant concern and worry. The most common trait found in all Panic Disorder patients is a fear of being embarrassed. When a person takes an attack once they are paranoid for up to three months about going into public for fear of taking another attack. People diagnosed with panic disorder experience great anticipation and are very anxious when they look forward. They often worry and think of the worst possible outcomes, and at night, nightmares often occur. Panic disorder patients often assume that they have an undiagnosed disease or think they are going crazy (Harvard, 2000, p.8). Sarah, also experienced severe anxiety in social situations. She had a terrible fear of having another attack, fear of losing consciousness, and a fear of embarrassment in social situations. Sarah had suffered in her sleep as well. Constant nightmares persisted, causing lack of sufficient sleep. Sarah felt she was going cra...

An analysis of reflections in the placement Journal Essay

An analysis of reflections in the placement Journal - Essay Example However, as I got older, I began to see school on a different perspective, a more matured outlook. School started to matter as I got immersed in classes, met new friends, inundated with examinations and peppered with research works. During this time, I got involved in my studies and never realized that my perception of schooling has also changed. That is, I saw the school as the better part of my day, a reason for being. As I progressed from level to level, I started looking at school as a way of life - my way of life. Mornings left me feeling hopeful and energized to face the dawning of a new class and afternoons left me anxious for the following session. My days became identified with the activities in school and my hours were marked by my performance in class. At that time, I was nothing more than a student amongst a million in the world and I was ultimately defined by the role I play in school and I was fine with it. However, even with the apparent positive attitude that I have t aken on, misgivings and hesitations make up a large portion of my outlook regarding the school in its entirety. Feelings of nervousness, apprehension and doubts still clam my palms and make my stomach heave with anticipation. But then again, these are all normal human responses which have been deeply ingrained in all of us. After all, the school is an institution established to measure our capabilities and brand us as either worthy or wanting. As a principled and boastful lot, nobody is too keen of that. First Entry This essay will explain my field work placement at a school located in East London area that is called Vicarage Primary School. Â  In this piece of work I will focus on my first three days of my placement and analyse these three journals entire days. Â  The Vicarage Primary School is a learning institution located in the London Borough of Newham. Most of the students attending Vicarage Primary belong to the vastly diverse culture bisecting the East London community and as such, other languages such as Bengali, Urdu and Somali are being spoken aside from English (OFSTED Report, 2010). Likewise, Vicarage Primary School enjoys a relatively higher percentage of students eligible for free school meals as it averages to almost 40% OFSTED Report, 2010). At present, the school is the recipient of the Basic Skills Mark award and boasts of the Investors in People and Healthy School awards (OFSTED Report, 2010). Â   In the first day of my placement at Vicarage Primary school it was very good for me as I know most of the member of staffs that work there because I done voluntary work there since 2002 in this school and this gives me more confidence, than as if a student started placement for first time, but in the first day of my placement I was thinking what class and years the children I am working are because every year I work there I worked in different classes and year. The first thing that worried me in the first day of my placement was that I wondered would the children welcome me to work and support them, but that day was very good as most of the children remembered me since last year when I was out side with children of my class in their play time and they told me we know you miss. Also in the first day of my placement the teacher and support teacher in years 3 were very good to me as they welcome me and communicate with me about what we are going to do in that day and in which table I am working with.

Mueller-Lehmkuhl GmbH Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mueller-Lehmkuhl GmbH - Case Study Example The present research has identified that the Mueller-Lehmkhul production process for instance consists of machining and tooling departments which are mainly set aside for producing attaching machines. The other step involves prototyping and designing for the attaching machines. Additionally, there is purchase of the required parts consisting of engines and motors which are cast to the specifications according to a local iron casting enterprise. The next step involves wielding followed by the process of assembling. Testing is also very crucial as it sets apart value added products from the non-value added products before they are sold. The fastener production process is characterized by three core steps that include-stamping, assembly and finishing. The existing cost system can be referred to as activity based costing or ABC which uses a number of mixes of volume based activities and other activities that are non-volume based. The activity based costing takes into account the fact tha t there are changes in technology and production methods and that there is a high rate of new products emerging into the market that has resulted in a change in overheads like IT and quality control. The ABC approach is able to allocate these overheads in a more accurate manner by classifying overheads into groups that are influenced by homogenous activities. The groups are called cost pools while the activities that drive the costs are known as cost drivers.

How technology has influenced the Thomson Travel Agency Essay

How technology has influenced the Thomson Travel Agency - Essay Example From this, it is quite obvious that travel agents play a vital role in this business. When armed with technological knowledge, they form a force to reckon with. Surveys conducted by various people outline the importance of the latter in influencing consumer’s decisions on the destinations to take. From the time a person decides to make any trip, they are usually faced with the decisions of which airline to take, the particular place to visit if on holiday, convenience and efficiency of the whole process. Due to the boom of technological advancements, potential passengers or tourists can by the click of a button, peruse the options availed to them. However, this information can be mind boggling to an extent that it can became more of a headache than a resourceful tool. Thus, travel agents can make recommendations to their clients and help them in choosing the particular travel package that would best suit them depending on their needs (Howard 1963). It is like they completely allow these people to take over all their travel arrangements so that, all that is required of them are to show up. Tour operators are thus faced with the key role of advertising their products. Marketing becomes an important tool so as to stay in business, of which, travel agents are made to go out of their way to infuse better marketing strategies (Birner & Booms1982). Computer technology provided a way to effectively manage all the extensive information concerning general travel. For example, with introduction of the Computer reservations systems (CRS) in 1953, that was later converted to the Semi Automated Business Research Environment (Sabre). This was a combination of CRS and global distribution system (GDS) that provided a wide load of travel information and reservations. â€Å"Directional selling† which involved the sale of package holidays using a complex chain of travel agents, is a practice that has become

Importance of Making a Marketing Plan to Start-up Business

Importance of Making a Marketing Plan to Start-up Business The Importance of Making a Marketing Plan for a Company to Start-up Businesses Chapter 1 Overall Introduction A marketing plan is a document that is written when a company is being set up and which provides a clear analysis and assessment of the market. Whether you are opening a special restaurant, or establishing an Internet company, making a good marketing plan is the first step. The more accurate the plan, the more opportunities can be won. The marketing plan is not just for investors, but also for the company itself and its products. So, it is important to know where the market opportunities lie, how to design products, and how to make customers more willing to buy these products. A marketing plan needs to address several key questions, such as who are the competitors; how to beat these rivals; how to prepare enough resources about customer buying habits to enable enterprises to keep a steady stream of sales revenue; how to manage the company and how many staff to hire; how to assign jobs to them; how to set up departments. Making a marketing plan is a complex but useful activity for most companies, to say nothing of setting up a new business in the market. This paper does not mention all aspects about the marketing plan but it will give detailed explanations about the importance of making a marketing plan and some specific cases study to analyse it. Establishing a successful satisfying marketing plan will benefit some businesses. Moreover, it suits for all businesses, big or small, to converge effort toward or meet in a common purpose and determination, which will promote teamwork. At the same time, whatever a company wants to get from a business, the business can continue without clients. Marketing plan being based on understanding marketing value can help a company to appeal and hold more customers. Chapter 2 Rationales Introduction This chapter will give the reasonable reasons why it is important making a marketing plan for a company to start-up businesses. It focuses on the topic and outlines more explanations in details. Technology Innovation With the rapid development of technology, doing marketing plans could make full use of various materials. It was not known that how much influence the technology has made to marketing plans. For instance, if there is no advanced technology, it will be easy to be ignored that the plan was just written on paper for start-up businesses. This paper will give an explanation about the impact of technological development on marketing plans. Business Expansion Companies have always been looking for opportunities to increase profits. For different businesses, the role of marketing plan is not the same. Sometimes a good marketing plan may possibly help to promote sales of existing products and explore emerging markets. For example, the reason for doing a marketing plan can be to determine which market offers the best opportunities to rise for trades in a short term. Public Psychology There are generally unpredictable risks in start-up businesses. Public psychology is normally that they want to know the problems in advance and take some measures to avoid before happening. It is very necessary and effective for these people to make a well-prepared marketing plan. This paper aims to provide sufficient reasons for those who want to prepare in advance of starting a business. Chapter 3 Literature Review Introduction The purpose of this section is to provide different literature evaluations, which gives the definition of marketing planning and explains the importance of making a marketing plan for a company to start-up businesses. The main information was taken by these literature views in several books in DKIT library. Overview of Marketing Planning Global commerce, sophisticated technology, and markets are the main trend in society nowadays, which can be changed at the click of a mouse. Marketing is a dynamic function that companies needed. The gradual change is an important reason that marketers can rely upon what is presenting a new product or developing an active marketing strategy, which is the most cost-effective way to take advantage of an emerging occasion. The cases of Reflect.com and Achieva can be considered, which is that these two companies directors are also underlined that making a complete marketing plan is the key point to start up a new business. (Burk Wood, 2003) Proctor mentions that it is necessary to adopt a systematic way to arrange and carry out sales strategies. It bases on making a reasonable and effective plan. Besides, a full marketing plan includes several subsidiary plans which supplement some information detailed so as to targets having been determined can be achieved better. (Proctor, 2000) The Definition of Marketing Planning Burk Wood defined marketing planning as the organized procedure of exploring and making analysis about the marketing condition; emerging and recording marketing strategies, intentions, and platforms; and executing, assessing, and commanding events to complete the purposes. The consequence is the marketing plan, a paper in this organized method that explains what can be gained from the marketplace and shows what will be carried out for a company to reach its marketing objects. (Burk Wood, 2003) Whats more, Burk Wood presents what is the organized procedure to make a marketing plan, which makes a series of compatible marketing choices and movements for a certain company during a long term. (Burk Wood, 2013) Meanwhile, McDonald and Wilson give the definition in this process is the purpose of completing marketing objectives, which can make marketing plan to be the deliberate submission of marketing resources. Marketing plan is basically a reasonable structure and a variety of programs result in the environment of marketing objectives and the preparation of a plan to complete them. (McDonald Wilson, 2011) Making a marketing plan is the combinative and coordinative action, which concentrates on a companys activities. The calculated and deliberate resolutions should be made based on company and function levels. That can present systematic, logical and practical ideas in a marketing plan, which can lead to the right track when a company meet the barriers. (Drummond Ensor, 2001) The Advantage of Marketing Plan Burk Wood describes that the customers are primary kept focused on in marketing plan, which can lead you to decide what your company will do and what it wont do for customers, and supports you to inspect offerings in the background of competition and the marketing situation, and establish rationales to do the allocation of resources for realizing marketing proficiency and value. (Burk Wood, 2002) In addition, McDonald provides a result that marketing plan is vital in which a company need to control the gradually aggressive and difficult situation. The great mass of managers considers that marketing plan with some formal processes benefits improve this reasonableness in order to reduce the difficulties of business processes and offer practical measurements to the future development of company. Most corporations depend only upon estimation of sales and systems of budget due to the complexity and difficulty. (McDonald, 2002) The Importance of Marketing Plan There is little research experienced getting connection between the equality and achievement of plan system to evaluate if increase a market share or assess with reference of advanced cost-effectiveness. Moreover, from Capon, Farley and Hulberts study (1988), it shows that there is no positive correlation among a marketing plan and performance standard. However, a company making a structure plan has less change in profitability than other companies without it. Providing another study of Stasch and Lanktree (1980), it benefits from a sample of six companies, which found a common optimistic relationship existing among results of a marketing plan and various standards of performance evaluation. Most administrators consider that a marketing plan provides many invisible advantages while relating directly between a marketing plan and marketing performance improved is so difficult, such as carrying out serious ways for strategies development and make sure of considering outside environment. (Lehmann Winer, 2008) A large quantity of external and internal aspects influences the ability of accomplishing cost-effective transactions in a confusing way. There is little doubt that it is very important to make a marketing plan when a growing number of aggressive and complex situation are considered for a company. Furthermore, most administrators believe that a formalized marketing plan can improve the reasonableness in order to reduce difficulties of transaction operations and increase possibilities to achieve the aim for company future hopes. Due to the large difficulties, it is well-known that most companies would rather depend on estimation of sales and systems of budget. However, it relates to opportunities and problems a company will meet in the market. It is more necessary and difficult to record the chances and strategies in a marketing plan for a company. (McDonald Wilson, 2011) Chapter 4 Research Methods Introduction The main information of this chapter is to introduce the methodology which the writer indicates so that make accomplishment for the research objective. By the way, a specific method will be analysed with some practices in businesses. Moreover, it will give the purposes that why the researcher takes this method and presents findings based on these cases. we can therefore define research as something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill, 2012) Qualitative Research Creswell (2002) describes that qualitative research is quite necessary in conditions where it is confusing what accurately is being found out in a research, so as to support the researcher consider what information is essential and what isnt. Denzin and Lincoln (2000) indicate that although quantitative research is normally known for what it should be observed previously a research starts. The research procedure can develop more detailed and make writer feel more clear about the topic of study with time progresses. Secondary Research This part mentions a supply of data, which are all provided from previous study papers, journalists, magazines and newsletter as well as daily commentary. Some cases are offered to give detailed analyses about the research topic. Dawson (2009) indicates that the secondary research method is very suitable for researcher who wants to save time and be economical. In addition, various information can be obtained quickly and conveniently, which is also accessible for public. However, there are few weaknesses which is impossible to be avoided for the secondary research method. For instances, if there was no enough investigation for current situation, some out of data would be substantively collected even without any value, which is not be related to researchers needs and not available. Online Data Describe Online comments will be collected from some website that presents various arguments by some social and business elite. If possible, the researcher will create a topic post on the business website that anyone can comment on. The post of online comments will be continued for 3 days. Temporarily, some realistic practices or business news will be offered from the internet. Example of Case This fragment will give the explanation about the importance of a marketing plan for a car company named Mustang in America. Chapter 5 Discoveries and Analyses Introduction This chapter refers to the writers findings and describe the result comprehensively standing the base of research process. Findings are taken from some cases and compare within different arguments about the topic from books being used in literature review finished in chapter 3. Due to these results, analyses are generally presented to help understanding the significance of making a marketing plan for a company. Chapter 6 Conclusion In conclusion, there are advantages and disadvantages to make a marketing plan for a company to start-up businesses. Through this research including to find and read several books relating the topic benefits for those who require to establish their own businesses. Chapter 7 References Burk Wood, M. (2003), The Marketing Plan: a Handbook. NJ: Prentice Hall. Proctor, T. (2000), Strategic Marketing: an introduction. London: Routledge. Burk Wood, M. (2013), Essential Guide to Marketing Planning. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. McDonald, M. Wilson, H. (2011), Marketing Plans: how to prepare them, how to use them. 7th ed. Chichester: Wiley. Drummond, G. Ensor, J. (2001), Strategic Marketing: planning and control. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Lehmann, D. Winer, R. (2008), Analysis for Marketing Plan. 7th ed. International ed. Boston; London: McGraw-Hill. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. Thornhill, A. (2012), Research Methods for Business Students. 6th ed. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Creswell, J. (2002), Research Design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. 2nd ed. London: SAGE. Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y. (2000), Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications Why Do I Need a Marketing Plan? (2016), The Australian Government Business, Australian, viewed 20 March 2017, [https://www.business.gov.au/info/plan-and-start/develop-your-business-plans/marketing/why-do-i-need-a-marketing-plan]. Dawson, C. (2009), Introduction to Research Methods: a practical guide for anyone undertaking a research project. 4th ed. Oxford: How To Books.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) Essay

BACKGROUND Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are bacterial infections acquired during a patient’s stay in a healthcare institution.   It imposes a huge burden on healthcare institutions, costing billions of dollars for additional care costs as well as a significant fraction of lost lives (Houghton, 2006).   Current estimates depict that approximately 2 million patients acquire healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) or nosocomial infections each year, of which 90,000 to 100,000 patients die (Houghton, 2006), making HAIs not only a national health problem, but a global threat as well.   Common HAIs include hematological, surgical site, dermatological, respiratory, urinary and gastrointestinal systems.   In order to control the increase in number of healthcare-associated infections, it is fundamental to identify key factors that make healthcare institutions susceptible to such outbreaks.   There is a need to evaluate the sensitivity and efficiency of healthcare institutions to healthcare-associated infections in order to prevent future outbreaks. PROBLEM STATEMENT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This study will investigate the sensitivity of detection and efficiency of reporting healthcare-associated infections to the hospital administration, in the context of providing measures in improving the current surveillance program in the country.   The guidelines to identification of a healthcare associated infection will be evaluated through personal interactions with healthcare workers using questionnaires which will be designed using a multiple choice approach. CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This study is based on the need to address the current epidemic of healthcare-associated infection that is emerging around the world.   Before an effective solution to the problem is designed, it is essential that shortcomings in the standard procedures of healthcare institutions be identified.   This may be done by determining the level of sensitivity of healthcare personnel to symptoms of healthcare-associated infections, as well as knowing what are the first set of actions to be done once an infection is confirmed within a healthcare institution.   This study may serve as the first measurement tool that addresses these aspects of the global epidemic.    RESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This investigation aims to address the question of whether the current hospital administration is sensitive enough to detect and substantially efficient to report to healthcare institutions any incidents of healthcare-associated infections.   This will be directly evaluated using survey data collections from retrospective cases of particular health institutions as related to dates of hospital admission, confirmation of infection and treatment time.    SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is a need for an effective surveillance and control program for healthcare-associated infections that are based on current settings in a healthcare institution.   Through surveys that inquire on common practices and responses of healthcare workers, any shortcomings or avoidable gaps in the hospital system may be reformed, which in turn will alleviate the spread of infection in the healthcare institutions.   Review of medical records and interviews with attending healthcare personnel will be performed in order to determine whether there are certain discrepancies and gaps in the healthcare protocol that facilitate contamination and further spreading of infectious microbials around the healthcare institution.   This study may facilitate the identification of key factors that influence the increase in frequency of nosocomial infections in hospitals.   The results of this investigation may positively serve as a tool to healthcare workers such as nurses and laboratory technicians. STATEMENT OF THE PURPOSE (OBJECTIVES)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This research will determine the sensitivity and response rate of healthcare workers to healthcare-associated infections.   This proposal aims to develop a measurement tool that will determine the sensitivity for identification, efficiency of reporting and the response rate to a healthcare-association infection, with the aim of designing a cost-effective and quick way of controlling and ultimately eradicating the healthcare-related problem.       LITERATURE REVIEW   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The prevention and control of HAIs requires a comprehensive approach that addresses as many pathogens as possible (Wiseman, 2006). Urinary tract infections (UTI) associated with catheter use are the most common HAIs, with hospital-acquired pneumonia having the highest mortality rate (Houghton, 2006).   These infections are frequently problematic to treat due to the fact that the microorganisms involved have become resistant to antibiotics (Broadhead, Parra and Skelton, 2001). Recent media coverage of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has increased the awareness of healthcare professionals to the threat of this particular microbe.   S. aureus infections can result in cellulitis, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis and pneumonia, and some of the systemic diseases such as food poisoning, scalded skin syndrome and toxic shock syndrome (Zaoutis, Dawid and Kim, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   MRSA and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) are the primary causes of nosocomial infections and are significant factors in increased morbidity and mortality rates. These microbes are currently endemic in many healthcare institutions, particularly problematic in intensive care units (ICUs) (Furuno, et al. 2005).   VRE Infections have become prevalent in U.S. hospitals over the last decade, increasing in incidence 25-fold (Ridwan et al., 2002).   Vancomycin is the antibiotic frequently used to treat infections caused by MRSA, but recent years have seen the emergence of Staphylococcus aureus infections that have high-resistance to vancomycin, which makes the future effectiveness of this drug questionable (Furuno et al., 2005). All known variants of the vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) isolates have possessed the vanA gene, which carries with it resistance to vancomycin.   This development is believed to have been acquired â€Å"when the MRSA isolate conjugated with a co-colonizing VRE isolate† (Furuno et al., 2005, p. 1539). This means that patients who suffer co-colonization from MRSA and VRE have an increased risk for colonization and infection by VRSA (Furuno et al., 2005). Furthermore, Zirakzadeh and Patel (2006) stated that VRE has become a major concern due, in part, to its ability to transfer vancomycin resistance to other bacteria, which includes MRSA.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Infection of susceptible patients typically occurs in environments that have a high rate of patient colonization with VRE, such as ICUs and oncology units (Zirakzadeh and Patel, 2006).   In these healthcare settings, VRE has been known to survive for extensive periods and research has also observed that VRE has the ability to contaminate virtually every surface (Zirakzadeh and Patel, 2006). Efforts to control HAIs, such as VRE, have focused on prevention, such as through hand hygiene, as the first line of defense.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hand hygiene has been improved by using â€Å"user-friendly, alcohol-based hand cleansers, but there still remains the goal of achieving consistently high levels of compliance with their use† (Carling et al., 2005, p. 1).   Screening-based isolation practices have likewise improved transmission rates of MRSA and VRE; however, logistic issues and the cost-effectiveness of these practices are still being analyzed (Carling et al., 2005). Additionally, despite isolation practices, outbreaks and instances of environmental contamination have been documented in regards to MRSA, VRE and Clostridium difficile, which cannot be screened with any practicality (Carling et al., 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The numerous obstacles that exist in regards to effective screening practices suggest that a focus on improving existing cleaning/disinfecting practices may prove to be more effective in halting the spread of HAIs (Carling et al., 2005). Studies over the last several decades have shown that there is often contamination of surfaces in and around the patient, as pathogens associated with the hospital environment have been known to survive on surfaces for weeks or even months (Carling et al., 2005). Significant rates of contamination with Clostridium difficile have been connected with symptomatic and asymptomatic patients (Carling et al., 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 2002, the CDC issued guidelines that called for hospitals to â€Å"thoroughly clean and disinfect environmental medical equipment† surfaces on a regular basis (Carling et al., 2005, p. 2). Other organizations have followed suit and stressed repeatedly the need for healthcare provides to focus on environmental cleaning and disinfecting activities, yet these guidelines have not provided directives that address precisely how healthcare providers can either evaluate   their ability to comply with professional guidelines on this topic or ensure that their procedures are effective (Carling et al., 2005).   Nevertheless, literature on the subject does offer some guidance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Surveillance, evidence-based infection control practices and the responsible use of antibiotics have been determined to be crucial to controlling HAIs (Wiseman, 2006).   The establishment of comprehensive surveillance programs has facilitated the creation of national databases the compile cases of infection which may be useful to researchers investigating progression rates and causal factors.   Evidence-based control practices may be implemented by distributing guidelines for aseptic hospital protocols, hospital hygiene, personal protective equipment and disposal of biohazardous sharps.   A review of commonly used antibiotics in terms of proper dosage and length of treatment based on clinical evidence and best practice guidance should also be performed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Curry and Cole (2001) reported that the medical and surgical ICUs in large inner-city teaching hospitals developed an elevated patient VRE colonization rate. A multi-faceted approach was instituted to correct this problem, which involved changing behavior by â€Å"shifting norms at multiple levels through the ICU community† (Curry and Cole, 2001, p. 13). This intervention consisted of five levels of behavioral change. These encompassed: â€Å"1. intrapersonal and individual factors; 2. interpersonal factors; 3. institutional factors; 4. community factors and 5. public factors† (Curry and Cole, 2001, p. 13).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Educational interventions were developed that addressed each level of influence and behavioral change was predicated on â€Å"modeling, observational learning and vicarious reinforcement† (Curry and Cole, 2001, p. 13). These procedures resulted in a marked decrease of â€Å"VRE surveillance cultures and positive clinical isolates† within six months and this decrease has been consistent over the next two years (Curry and Cole, 2001, p. 13).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Research has shown that the nutritional status of preoperative and perioperative patients can influence their risk for acquiring a HAI (Martindale and Cresci, 2005). This is particularly true for patients who are undergoing surgery for neoplastic disease as this can commonly result in immunosuppression (Martindale and Cresci, 2005). Inadequate nutrition, â€Å"surgical insult, anesthesia, blood transfusions, adjuvant chemotherapy/radiation/ and other metabolic changes† have been identified as contributing to suppression of the immune system (Martindale and Cresci, 2005). Furthermore, studies have also associated infection risk with glycemic control Maintaining blood glucose levels between 80 and 110 mg/dL vs. 180 and 200 mg/dL has been shown to result in fewer instances of â€Å"acute renal failure, fewer transfusions, less polyneuroopathy and decreased ICU length of stay† (Martindale and Cresci, 2005, p. S53).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Citing Ulrich and Zimring, Rollins (2004) states that getting rid of double-occupancy rooms and providing all patients with single rooms that can be adjusted to meet their specific medical needs can improve patient safety by reducing patient transfers and cutting the risk of nosocomial infections. While these researchers admit that the up-front cost of private rooms is significant, this will be offset by the savings accrued through lowers rates of infection and readmission, as well as shorter hospital stays (Rollins, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A recent study conducted by researchers at Chicago’s Rush University Medical Center found that enforcing environmental cleaning standards on a routine basis resulted in less surface contamination with VRE, â€Å"cleaner healthcare worker hands, and a significant reduction in VRE cross-transmission in an ICU† (Cleaning campaign, 2006, p. 30). These improvement in VRE contamination continued to be experienced even when VRE-colonized patients were continually admitted and healthcare workers compliance with hand hygiene procedures were only moderate (Cleaning campaign, 2006). The strategies that the researchers implemented included that they: held in-services for housekeepers about why cleaning is important–emphasizing thorough cleaning of surfaces likely to be touched by patients or workers. increased monitoring of housekeeper performance. recruited respiratory therapists to clean ventilator control panels daily. educated nurses and other ICU staff on VRE and how they could assist housekeepers by clearing surfaces that need cleaning. conducted a hand hygiene campaign, including: mounting alcohol gel dispensers in common areas, patient rooms and every room entrance (Cleaning campaign, 2006, p. 30).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CDC guidelines indicate that if hands are not visibly soiled, using an alcohol-based hand rub should become habitual between patient contacts. When hands are visibly soiled, use of an anti-microbial soap and water is required. If contact with C difficile or Bacillus anthracis is possible, it is recommended that the healthcare provider wash with anti-microbial soap and water, as other antiseptic agents have poor efficacy against spore-forming bacteria and the physical friction of using soap and water at least decreases the level of contamination (Houghton, 2006). Page (2005) indicates that the CDC has joined with the US Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institutes of Health (NIH and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to lead a task force of 10 agencies and departments, which have developed a blueprint outlining federal actions to combat this problem. This template emphasizes the efficacy of hand washing, among other points (Page, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 2002, the CDC issued updated hand hygiene guidelines, which address new development and research on this topic, such as â€Å"alcohol-based hand rubs and alternatives to antibacterial soaps and water† (Houghton, 2006, p. 2). However, while the efficacy of hand hygiene is well accepted, it is also well known that healthcare workers â€Å"of all disciplines† frequently fail to abide by adequate hand hygiene practices (Houghton, 2006, p. 2). In fact, research has shown that adherence rates to hand hygiene guidelines are lowest in ICUs, where to the frequency of patient care contact, multiple opportunities for hand hygiene exist on a hourly basis (Houghton, 2006). According to Houghton (2006), any direct patient-care contact, which includes contact with gloves and/or contact with objects in the immediate patient vicinity, constitutes an â€Å"opportunity† for appropriate hand hygiene.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This suggests that the proposed intervention should also include asking healthcare employees at the site of the intervention to participate in a survey that examines, first of all, how closely hand hygiene protocols are followed and, if they are not followed, why not. It may be that the activity level of ICUs is so great that the practitioners feel that they cannot take sufficient time to do adequate hand hygiene. If this is the case, alternative methods of hand hygiene to that institution’s traditional policy may need to be investigated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Just as this study revealed factors that can be associated with non-compliance, a similar investigative effort may be called for to determine reasons why compliance may not be satisfactory for cleaning/disinfecting environmental surfaces. Again, it may be that non-compliance hinges on factors of time.   It may be, therefore, expeditious for hospitals and other healthcare organizations to look into hiring additional personnel to aid with cleaning/disinfecting tasks. It may also prove necessary, to cope with factors of time and efficiency, to train cleaning personnel to take a systematic approach to patient room cleaning that includes all â€Å"high touch† areas. As noted previously, researchers at Chicago’s Rush University Medical Center found that holding in-service training for housekeepers was an effective component of their overall strategy in lowering VRE related infections (Cleaning campaign, 2006). This process could be facilitated by a checklist approach or by periodically reevaluating rooms according to the Carling et al. (2005) methodology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Given these detailed accounts of healthcare-associated infections in hospitals, it is of significant importance that the sensitivity and response rate of health personnel be identified in order to know if there are any discrepancies and gaps in the standard hospital protocols that foster the expansion of microbials in hospitals.   This study aims to determine the level of sensitivity and response rate of healthcare institutions to the growing epidemic of healthcare-associated infections.    SUMMARY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HAIs are an unnecessary tragedy, increasing morbidity and mortality figures and adding to healthcare costs. While there are ways to treat all the various HAIs, the clearest remedy for this insidious drain on healthcare resources and personnel is prevention, which begins with the simplest of acts–washing one’s hands–but also extends to considering all hospital surfaces as having the potential to harbor pathogens. This means rethinking some healthcare institutional procedures. It means habitually and routinely cleaning all surfaces, as well as everywhere and anything that is routinely touched, whether by a bare or gloved hand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Stopping the spread of HAIs includes multiple factors, such as restrained and appropriate use of antibiotics. However, the first line of defense is cleaning/disinfecting procedures. This constitutes the â€Å"ground zero† foundational line for battling HAIs and this means that all healthcare practitioners should keep the goal of reducing the spread of HAIs foremost in their minds while going about their daily routines, washing hands between each patient contact and paying attention to other sepsis concerns. In other words, the first step in stopping HAIs is simply to keep them in the forefront of practitioner consciousness. References Broadhead, J. M., Parra, D. S., & Skelton, P. A. (2001). Emerging multiresistant organisms in the ICU: Epidemiology, risk factors, surveillance, and prevention. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly, 24(2), 20. Carling, P. C., Briggs, J., Hylander, D., & Perkins, J. (2006). An evaluation of patient area cleaning in 3 hospitals using a novel targeting methodology. American Journal of Infection Control, 34(8), 513-519. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs).  Ã‚   Retrieved March 17, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/healthDis.html Cleaning campaign targets VRE transmission. (2006). OR Manager, 22(7), 30. Curry, V. J., & Cole, M. (2001). Applying social and behavioral theory as a template in containing and confining VRE. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly, 24(2), 13. Furuno, J. P., Perencevich, E. N., Johnson, J. A., Wright, M.-O., McGregor, J. C., Morris Jr, J. G., et al. (2005). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci co-colonization. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(10), 1539-1544. Harrison, S., & Lipley, N. (2006). Wipe It Out infection control initiative extended. Nursing Management – UK, 12(10), 4-4. Houghton, D. (2006). HAI prevention: The power is in your hands. Nursing Management, 37(5), 1-8. Johnson, A.P. Pearson, A. and Duckworth, G.   (2005):   Surveillance and epidemiology of MRSA bacteraemia in the UK.   J. Antimicrob. Chemo.   56:455–462. Lopman, B.A., Reacher, M.H., Vipond, I/.B., Hill, D., Perry, C., Halladay, T., Brown, D.W., John Edmunds, W. and Sarangi, J.   (2004):   Epidemiology and Cost of Nosocomial Gastroenteritis, Avon, England, 2002–2003.   Emerg. Infect. Dis.   10(10):1827-1834. Martindale, R. G., & Cresci, G. (2005). Preventing Infectious Complications With Nutrition Intervention. JPEN, Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 29(1), S53. Page, S. (2005). MRSA, VRE and CDC’s plan to combat antimicrobial resistance. Vermont Nurse Connection, 8(3), 6-7. Parienti, J. J. M. D. D. T. M., Thibon, P. M. D., Heller, R. P. P., Le Roux, Y. M. D. D., von Theobald, P. M. D. D., Bensadoun, H. M. D. D., et al. (2002). Hand-rubbing with an aqueous alcoholic aolution vs traditional surgical hand-scrubbing and 30-day surgical site infection Rates. JAMA, 288(6), 722-727. Ridwan, B., Mascini, E., Reijden, N. v. d., Verhoef, J., & Bonten, M. (2002). What action should be taken to prevent spread of vancomycin resistant enterococci in European hospitals? British Medical Journal, 324(7338), 666. Rollins, J. A. (2004). Evidence-Based Hospital Design Improves Health Care Outcomes for Patients, Families, and Staff. Pediatric Nursing, 30(4), 338. Sheff, B. (2001). Taking aim at antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Nursing, 31(11), 62. STATA 8.0. College Station (TX): STATA Corporation; 2002. Stevenson, K.B., Searle, K., Stoddard, G.J. and Samore, M.H. (2005):   Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci in rural communities, Western United States.   Emerg. Infect. Dis.   11(6):895-903. Tacconelli, E. Venkataraman, L., De Girolami, P.C. and D’Agata, E.M.C.   (2004):   Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia diagnosed at hospital admission: distinguishing between community-acquired versus healthcare-associated strains.   J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53:474-479. Wiseman, S. (2006). Prevention and control of healthcare associated infection. Nursing Standard, 20(38), 41-45. Zaoutis, T., Dawid, S., & Kim, J. O. (2002). Multidrug-resistan organisms in general pediatrics. Pediatric Annals, 31(5), 313. Zirakzadeh, A., & Patel, R. (2006). Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Colonization, infection, detection and treatment. Mayo Clinical Proceedings, 81(4), 529-536. METHODOLOGY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A retrospective non-probability cluster surveillance study will be performed on hospital records of two health institutions, Assir Central Hospital and Khamis Mushait Hospital from January 2002 to December 2006.   Such coverage will represent a larger population of similar environmental and socioeconomic settings, which may also influence the frequency of healthcare-associated infections in the area.   This type of non-probability cluster sampling will be used because it will benefit the split-level definition that will be followed, distinguishing normal hospital cases and healthcare-associated infections or outbreaks, based on the CDC’s guidelines for healthcare-associated infections.   Ethical approval from the respective ethics review committee of each hospital will be obtained before the study will be conducted. Study population.   ThÐ µ study population will includÐ µ 5,000 patiÐ µnts that have been admitted at the Assir Central Hospital and Khamis Mushait Hospital from January 2002 to December 2006.   These hospitals were chosen in order to primarily focus on collection of reliable, high-quality data based of systematic sampling.   The hospital’s administrative database will serve as the main source of information for this study.   For purposes of anonymity, patient’s names will be kept confidential and will be replaced with a case number instead.   A retrospective non-probability sampling using patiÐ µnt cases will be classified according to gender, age, diagnosis upon admission, length of stay and treatment received. The treatment category of the patients will be further characterized as surgical, respiratory, urinary, urological, obstÐ µtrical, intensive care, cardiac or trauma.   Any co-morbidities will be taken note of in every patient included in the study.   Patient records will also be reviewed to determine whether and when a healthcare-associated infection was observed after admission to the hospital or during the patient’s stay in the hospital and will be identified as the time-at-risk, or the time when the infection has been ascertained and may most probably be contagious to the patient’s immediate environment.   Among the inclusion subjects are healthcare workers such as nurses, laboratory technicians and other hospital staff members will be included in the study as population at risk.   Exclusion subjects are those patients that were not admitted into the hospital because their stay in the hospital was not recommended during their healthcare.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The database of the infection control team of each of the two hospitals will be reviewed to gather information on the study population in the hospitals.   Infection control nurses are responsible for monitoring any outbreaks in each hospital during hospital ward rounds, or are identified as the point-of-contact personnel that is alerted as soon as an HAI incident is suspected to occur in the specific ward of the hospital.   Cluster sampling will be performed when an infection does happen that fits the clinical definition of an HAI, the healthcare institution is required to report this incident to the area’s or county’s health protection agency.   The area or county health protection agency is in charge of ensuring the comprehensiveness of incident reports, monitoring data entry and conducting analyses.   The health protection agency also collects reports during months that no infections were reported to verify that no inf ections occurred at that time. Tools to be employed.   To determine whether a case patient has contracted a healthcare-associated infection, the system definitions established by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance (NNIS) will be followed, with slight modification for usÐ µ in a rÐ µtrospÐ µctivÐ µ study.   ThÐ µ NNIS dÐ µfinitions were dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd according to a prospÐ µctivÐ µ approach to hospital survÐ µillancÐ µ and arÐ µ dÐ µsignÐ µd to bÐ µ quitÐ µ spÐ µcific.   BÐ µcausÐ µ clinical dÐ µcisions arÐ µ oftÐ µn not madÐ µ on thÐ µ basis of survÐ µillancÐ µ dÐ µfinitions, wÐ µ bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µ that somÐ µ casÐ µs of clinically suspÐ µctÐ µd infÐ µction would mÐ µÃ µt most but not all of thÐ µ NNIS critÐ µria and thus bÐ µ classifiÐ µd as non-HAI, Ð µspÐ µcially on a rÐ µtrospÐ µctivÐ µ chart rÐ µviÐ µw. WÐ µ designed a retrospective-based data classification scheme that follows the following criteria: patiÐ µnts who were not infÐ µctÐ µd, thosÐ µ with suspÐ µctÐ µd HAI, and thosÐ µ with confirmÐ µd HAI.   In gÐ µnÐ µral, patiÐ µnts with suspÐ µctÐ µd HAI will includÐ µ thosÐ µ who have received antimicrobial thÐ µrapy for a condition that appÐ µarÐ µd 148 h aftÐ µr hospital admission and who will mÐ µÃ µt all but onÐ µ clinical critÐ µria for a confirmed infÐ µction.   DÐ µfinitions for a confirmed HAI will bÐ µ the samÐ µ as thosÐ µ usÐ µd by thÐ µ NNIS, Ð µxcÐ µpt that rÐ µcÐ µipt of appropriatÐ µ antimicrobial thÐ µrapy will bÐ µ Ð µxcludÐ µd as a critÐ µrion for a confirmÐ µd infÐ µction. ThÐ µsÐ µ critÐ µria will bÐ µ finalizÐ µd bÐ µforÐ µ chart data abstraction bÐ µgins.   ThÐ µ Ð µconomic pÐ µrspÐ µctivÐ µ will bÐ µ usÐ µd for mÐ µasuring costs incurred by thÐ µ hospital, bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ hospital administ ration will bÐ µ thÐ µ dÐ µcision makÐ µr for instituting and financing infÐ µction control programs. Data collÐ µction.   Clinical cases of healthcare-associated infection identified by the clinical laboratories of the two participating hospitals will be compiled.   Demographic, medical history and other epidemiologically relevant data on each reported case will be collected.   The microbiology laboratory of the hospital may also contribute information to the data collection.   The patient’s medical record will serve as the primary source of information for this study.   The data collected will be recorded in a standardized data collection form.   In addition, outbreak or infection summary forms that were previously completed by infection control nurses and reported to health protection agencies as a healthcare-associated infection will be collected and integrated into the study database. The duration of an outbreak will be determined by taking note of the date the first case of the infection was reported and correlating this date to the date when the last case of the infection was reported at the healthcare institution (Lopman et al. 2004).   All data will abstracted from patiÐ µnt mÐ µdical rÐ µcords of the healthcare facility.   IntÐ µrratÐ µr rÐ µliability will not bÐ µ mÐ µasurÐ µd, bÐ µcausÐ µ Ð µach abstractor will bÐ µ focusÐ µd on rÐ µcording a singlÐ µ Ð µlÐ µmÐ µnt of data for Ð µach patiÐ µnt, similar to an assÐ µmbly linÐ µ.   All data gathering will bÐ µ dirÐ µctly supÐ µrvisÐ µd by a member of the research program.   PatiÐ µnts with suspÐ µctÐ µd or confirmÐ µd HAI will bÐ µ idÐ µntifiÐ µd on thÐ µ basis of thÐ µir vital signs, laboratory and microbiology data, and clinical findings documÐ µntÐ µd in the respective physician’s progrÐ µss and consultation notÐ µs. To improve the validity of the collected data, the following approaches (Stevenson et al. 2005) will be employed:   1) a data dictionary and operations manual will be created with explicit instructions for completion of the data collection forms; 2) the data collection protocol will be discussed during conference calls along with frequent one-on-one communication; and 3) anomalous data in the data reports will be routinely searched for and corrected.   The definitions employed in this study will concentrate on the location of the patient at the time of microbiological testing for infection diagnosis, and the presence or of exposure to the healthcare environment.   The study will emphasize the time of response of any member of the healthcare institution to the definitive diagnosis of the healthcare-associated infection (Johnson et al. 2005).   Each identified HAI case will be further analyzed for its causative agent, such as MRSA or VRE.   All included in this study were HAI cases with any prior history of hospitalization, out-patient surgery, residence or care in a home/health agency with documented healthcare-associated infections in the last 6 months.   Examples would include former out-patient cases with post-operative infections.   Other coexisting factors that may be associated with healthcare-associated infections such as diabetes mellitus, immunosuppression, renal failure and other antimicrobial drug treatments, will also be included in the data collection form. The incidence rates of each type of healthcare-associated infection will be calculated for each hospital from January 2002 to December 2006.   Any patient cases that could not be ascertained to be completely reported in the medical records will not be included in the analysis.   The incidence rates will be expressed as the number of healthcare-associated infections per 10,000 patient-days or number of community cases per 10,000-person-years, based on county population (Taconelli et al. 2004). Instruments including reliability and validity.   A data collection form will be designed for use in this investigation.   Essential entry data will include case number (patient name is kept confidential), hospital name, date of admission, diagnosis upon admission, treatment regime, date of detection of healthcare-associated infection, treatment of healthcare-associated infection, date of admission of treatment of healthcare-associated infection, identification of HAI etiologic agent, resistance of HAI etiologic agent and date of patient discharge.   The healthcare institution personnel that have attended to the patient will also be noted, such as attending physician, consults, nurses, technicians and technologists.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to ensure reliability and validity of the data inputted into the application form, only medical records that have been completely filled will be used in this investigation.   In addition, there will be questions in the application form that will determine whether the patient has undergone any previous exposure to any hospital for outpatient or inpatient hospital or nursing facility in the last 6 months.   This is done to make sure that the source of the HAI is determined, whether it is coming from within the hospital or from another healthcare institution. Data Analysis.   The collected data will be entered and stored in an AccessTM relational database (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) for analysis.   AccessTM is a database management system that is very useful for handling and manipulation of data that are designed in the query format.   It provides the analyst an easier way to extract data from the database according to selected fields or variables, as well as compare or combine two variables at one time. Data analyses will be performed using Microsoft ExcelTM and Stata 8.0 (2002).   Proportions of total cases meeting specific epidemiologic criteria will be calculated, and characteristics of each category will be compared by using Fisher exact testing.   To compare means, the t-test will be employed, and to compare proportions, the χ2 test will be used.   All continuous data will be analyzed using linear regression.   To assess linear correlations between two variables, the Spearman rank test will be used.   Census data and ages of patients in each category will be compared using the Kruskal-Wallis equality of populations rank test.   The relationship of healthcare institution response rates to the infection and other covariates will be modeled by using random effects Poisson regression. Each hospital will be taken into account as a unit and treated as a random effect.   During thÐ µ initial phasÐ µ of data collection, dÐ µscriptivÐ µ statistics will be used to dÐ µscribÐ µ and summarizÐ µ thÐ µ data obtained in thÐ µ study.   ThÐ µ sÐ µcond phasÐ µ of analysis will focus on thÐ µ usÐ µ of multivariatÐ µ analysis to dÐ µtÐ µrminÐ µ thÐ µ rÐ µlationship bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn variables such as length of stay and the severity of infection.   This will bÐ µ conductÐ µd through thÐ µ usÐ µ of cross tabulation of nominal data bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn sÐ µlÐ µctÐ µd variablÐ µs in thÐ µ study.   Statistical significancÐ µ is to bÐ µ sÐ µt at an alpha lÐ µvÐ µl of 0.05; ANOVA will bÐ µ usÐ µd to Ð µxaminÐ µ thÐ µ variation among thÐ µ data. Along with it, ordinary lÐ µast-squarÐ µs (OLS) rÐ µgrÐ µssion will bÐ µ usÐ µd to tÐ µst for linÐ µar rÐ µlationships bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn variables tested.   SuspÐ µctÐ µd HAI, confirmÐ µd HA I, and admission to ICU will bÐ µ codÐ µd as dummy variablÐ µs, with thÐ µ valuÐ µs of 1 that will bÐ µ assignÐ µd for patiÐ µnts with thÐ µ attributÐ µ and 0 for thosÐ µ without it. WhÐ µn prÐ µsÐ µnt, thÐ µsÐ µ dichotomous variablÐ µs act as intÐ µrcÐ µpt shiftÐ µrs but do not changÐ µ thÐ µ slopÐ µ of thÐ µ Ð µstimatÐ µd rÐ µgrÐ µssion linÐ µ. Limitations of the study.   Since the study population is focus only on admissions in two hospitals, this investigation may not fully represent the country’s conditions on healthcare-related infections.   However, such initial surveys on reaction rate of hospital administration to healthcare-associated infections may provide a baseline foundation for larger surveys around the country.       Ethical considerations.   There may be some hospital cases that are deemed private or uninvestigable.   These will not be included in the investigation.   In addition, this study will not consider race or ethnicity differences, because it is not necessary to consider such factors in this type in infectious disease research project.    Feasibility of the scope of this study.   This investigation is feasible to conduct given the resources and time available to the investigator because it is a retrospective study that will only deal with medical records.   Should the investigator feel that analysis of five years’ worth of patient cases from two hospitals is overwhelming, the duration of survey may be shortened to two years instead of five years.   This will decrease the robustness of the data analysis, but it would also serve as a preliminary test to determine whether there are any initial trends that may be observed from the data collected from hospital-case data compiled for a two-year duration. Summary assessment.   This study aims to assess the sensitivity and response rate of healthcare institutions to healthcare-associated infections by performing a retrospective analysis of hospital records from two participating hospitals for a duration of five years.   Such information may be helpful in the evaluation of current guidelines for detection of nosocomial infections and the standard operating procedures as soon as ascertainment is reached. Recommendation.   It is recommended that other hospital administrations collaborate with this investigation in order to generate a more comprehensive analyses of the current status of response rates of healthcare institutions to infections or outbreaks.   Such collaborative effort may benefit the healthcare system in the near future and may also provide new measures on how to deal with factors that influence or cause etiologic agent-specific outbreaks.

Summarizing and contrasting two Explanatory Theories Essay

Social workers apply theories according to how they understand people in the context of their unique circumstances, besides theories in social work are fundamental as they guide and explain social work practices. This essay will attempt to summarize psychodynamic and systems theories, highlighting similarities and differences and contrasting the application of the two explanatory theories and a practice theory to the case scenario of Mary & Patrick. Psychodynamic Theories According to Preston-Shoot and Agass (1990), Psychodynamic theories derives from Freud and has been expanded and modified subsequently by the work of Jung, Hollis, Melanie Klein and object-relations theorists, as well as Goldstin and ego psychology. Other influences are Bowlby and Howe’s attachment theory and a major proponent like Erikson developmental theories. Walsh (2010), suggest that psychodynamic theories emphasise upon the interplay between conscious and unconscious forces (p.32). Furthermore, Freud describes the importance of unconscious thought processes and defence mechanisms in determining human behaviour and human motivation (p.34). Moreover, psychodynamic theories place importance on past experiences in shaping personality â€Å"unchangeable things in the past are causing a person’s present behaviour† (Payne, 1997, p. 92). Additionally, Brearley as cited in Lishman (2007), describes that psychodynamic thinking concerns certain key relationships, lik e self and significant other, past and present experience, and inner and outer reality. Hence, some of the central concepts of psychodynamic theories are Freud’s structural model of the psyche; the id, ego and superego and the mental life as operating on several levels: The conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. Moreover, individuals develop defensive strategies to protect themselves from painful experiences thus the concepts of defence mechanisms such as denial, projection, splitting, rationalisation, sublimation and regression (Walsh 2010). Finally, other important concepts to consider are  anxiety, ambivalence, coping, transference, countertransference and inner world. Systems Theory Trevithick (2012), indicates that systems theory emphasises upon understanding the transactions between people and their environment. This theory recognises that a range of systems, including the intrapersonal and interpersonal, as well as neighbourhood and society impact individuals. Additionally, Healy (2005) suggests that transactions between person-environment are complex and non-linear. According to Healy (2005), Florence Hollis introduced the term systems theory to social work. She articulates some ways in which social workers could intervene in the client’s environment. Yet, one of the founders of general systems theory was Bertalanffy, who proposed that all inter-relationships between elements form the whole and recognise that all part of the system can never be entirely separated from each other. Another important proponent is Bronfenbrenner who proposes an ecological theory that centres on the relationship between the developing individual and the changing environmental systems, Bronfenbrenner suggests that the environment has an effect on the behaviour and how this is expressed (Guavian & Cole 1994). The social work discipline has expanded this perspective to explain that an individual is â€Å"constantly creating, restructuring, and adapting to the environment as the environment is affecting them† (Ungar, 2002). Additionally, Gordon Hearn and his colleagues pioneered the application of this theory to social work and Pincus, Minahan, Golstein, Germain, Gitterman, and Carol Meyer presented systems practice models. In recent years, Colin Peile proposed complex systems ideas in social work (Healy 2005). Furthermore, The different relationships of development called the microsystems; mesosystems and macrosystems are central concepts in systems theory. Microsystems, which refer to the relationship between a person and the immediate environment, such as school and family. Macrosystems refer to institutional patterns such as the economy, customs and policy. Other concepts such as homeostasis, defined as â€Å"the tendency of a biological organism to seek and keep some kind of operating balance in its internal process† (Leighninger, 1978, p.448).  Finally, other fundamental concepts to consider are input, feedback, roles, boundaries and subsystems. Similarities and differences Indeed, both psychodynamic and systems theories in social work have been adapted from theories originated in other disciplines, most notably from psychology and biology. Similarly, Psychodynamic and systems theories have been criticised because many of the concepts are difficult to understand and apply. In contrast, Trevithick (2012) indicates that for Freud and all later psychoanalytic theorists, the unconscious is the central concept, which differentiates psychoanalytic perspectives from systems theories. Furthermore, psychodynamic places attention on past experiences affecting current behaviour, whereas systems look at present circumstances impacting the individual. Finally, it is possible to say that psychodynamic theories focus on the individual’s behaviour, whereas systems locate individuals within their wider contexts. Case scenario: Mary From a systems perspective, a social worker could start by considering Mary’s family and social supports. It would be a good idea to use an ecomap for Mary and her family to gather data and analyse the impact that multiple systems are having in her situation. From an ecosystem perspective, the social worker could promote a supportive community for Mary. For instance, at a micro level the social worker could help Mary with the foster family or child care arrangements so that she does not have to travel so far with her baby, and so it is less stressful for her to go on visiting her other children. Other considerations to take into account could be exploring if Mary has anyone to whom she can turn in times of crisis, or if she has any friends, family, religious or community groups that can support her, or if social isolation is placing Mary at greater risk. Furthermore, exploring her relationship with her husband and visiting arrangements in jail. At a meso level, the social work er could consider external resources to help her financially so she can maintain her housing or alternatives for work or  training. By applying psychodynamic theory, a social worker could consider whether Mary’s lost of her parents have contributed to her unconscious conflicts or if other experiences of her past are affecting her mental stability. Furthermore, psychodynamic theories could be applied to understanding Mary’s and the children’s life stages and developmental needs. Is Mary functioning as a responsible adult? Is she able to appreciate the developmental needs of her children, especially her infant? Moreover, psychodynamic theory could be applied to interpret ways in which Mary’s defence mechanisms may be functioning. What role does denial play in the appraisal of her situation? From a strengths perspective, good practice would be to address her isolation. It would be good to encourage her to include more positive social interactions and use available resources. Moreover, recognizing the strengths that Mary possesses, reinforcing Mary’s capacity for wanting to seek hel p and empowering her to continue addressing her mental illness. Likewise, acknowledging her resilient characteristics. From this perspective the social worker needs to positively engage with Mary by asking good questions. This may involve asking: How have you managed to keep going? What would you like to see happening? What visions do you have for the future? What are you proud of? What would you like to change? How can I help you to achieve this change? In conclusion, each of these theoretical positions makes an important contribution to our understanding for practice. Both psychodynamic and systems theories have their strengths and weakness but can be helpful for understanding the client’s situation. Although a theory might seem to fit to a service-user, this doesn’t necessarily mean that this is the correct understanding of that person’s life so even if a theory appears to work, it is important to remain open-minded and maintain our reflective thinking. Likewise, when evaluating a theory’s applicability, social workers must consider whether the theories are helpful to u nderstanding and/or responding to their client’s circumstances. References Guavian, M. Cole, M. (1994). Readings on the Development of Children. Ecological Models of human development, NY: Freeman Healy, K. (2005) Social Work Theories in Context : Creating Frameworks for Practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York : Palgrave Macmillan Leighninger, R. (1978) ‘Systems Theory’, Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 5, 448-66. Retrieved from http://0web.b.ebscohost.com.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au Lishman, J. (2007). Handbook for Practice Learning in Social Work and Social Care: Knowledge and Theory. London ; Philadelphia : Jessica Kingsley Publishers Payne, M. (1997). Modern Social Work Theory. Chicago, IL: Lyceum. Preston – Shoot, M. and Agass, D. (1990) Making Sense of Social Work: Psychodynamics, Systems and Practice. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Trevithick, P. (2012). Social Work Skills and Knowledge: A Practice Handbook. Maidenhead McGraw-Hill/Open University Press Ungar, M. (2002). A Deeper, More Social Ecological Social Work Practice. Social Service Review, 2(16), 231-248. Walsh, J. (2010). Theories for Direct Social Work Practice. Belmont, Cal: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Experiment to investigate the Factors affecting the Energy Transfer Involved in the Cooling of Water Essays

Experiment to investigate the Factors affecting the Energy Transfer Involved in the Cooling of Water Essays Experiment to investigate the Factors affecting the Energy Transfer Involved in the Cooling of Water Essay Experiment to investigate the Factors affecting the Energy Transfer Involved in the Cooling of Water Essay Water cools in many different ways due to a variety of different reasons, which depend on the way in which the water is contained. I will be considering how water in a plastic cup cools. If I put hot water in a plastic cup I would expect heat to be lost by radiation from the sides and the top, conduction through the base and evaporation from the top. If however, the sides and base were highly insulated; most heat would be lost by evaporation and radiation from the top. Here are the ways in which heat is lost from cooling water: 1) Radiation Radiation is the movement of heat energy by electros of radiation are the sun radiating heat through space and a central heating radiator radiating heat into a room. 2) Conduction Conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. When a material is heated the particles nearest to the heat gain kinetic energy. They then start to vibrate faster due to this energy and as they do they touch other particles and transfer the kinetic energy to them. This process is repeated and the energy is transferred through out the object from hot regions to cooler regions. As the water looses heat from the sides of the cup conduction will cool the mass of the water. Conduction will also occur through the walls of the cup and then radiate and through the base of the cup into the surface on which the cup stands. 3) Convection When a liquid of gas is heated (convection can not take place in solids), the molecules move faster and push each other further apart. The fluid expands and becomes less dense. The less dense fluid then rises upwards taking its thermal energy with it. This rising fluid is then replaced by cooler fluid and a convection current is set up. Thermal energy is transferred by the molecules themselves moving from the hot region to the cooler one. As the water nearest the sides of the plastic cup cools due to radiation, convection with in the water will cool all the water. 4) Evaporation When water is heated the molecules gain kinetic energy and move around very quickly. Some of these molecules manage to gain enough energy to break free from the liquid. This process is called evaporation. As the water evaporates it takes away some of the thermal energy. As the temperature of water increases the molecules gain more and more energy so the rate of evaporation also increases. Evaporation can be reduced by sealing the top of the plastic cup with a very small air space above the water. The water vapour will then condense and drip back into the water. 5) Temperature differential The difference in temperature between room temperature and the temperature of water can alter the rate of which the water cools. If there is a big difference and the water is very hot and the room temperature is fairly low then the rate of cooling will be much larger than if the temperatures were very close together. 6) Insulation Insulation is a material with low conductivity which is used to reduce the amount of heat lost from a hot object such as a hot water tank. By wrapping the plastic cup with insulation the rate of conduction through the wall of the cup will be reduced. Air is a very good insulator and so many insulators have small air pockets with in them which can prevent large convection currents being set up. 7) Energy The thermal energy of water can be calculated by measuring the volume of water and its temperature. The energy change = the specific heat capacity à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ mass à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ temperature change The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Joules per Kg per à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½K For example to heat up 1kg of water by 10 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C would require: 4200 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 10 = 42000 Joules. The energy loss can then be calculated by measuring the reduction in temperature provided the volume of water remains unchanged. Plan I have chosen to investigate the effect of insulation on the rate of energy loss from the water because it is more easily measured than the other factors. By increasing the thickness of insulation surrounding the water, I can measure the rate at which heat is lost from the water for different thicknesses and determine the relationship between the rate of heat loss and the thickness of insulation. To do this I will need to reduce the loss of heat by evaporation by sealing the top of the container. In this experiment heat will be conducted through the insulation and then radiate into the air. The amount of radiation will change because the surface temperature of the insulation will reduce as the insulation becomes thicker and the external surface area of the insulation increases due to the extra thickness around a circular cup. Experiment to investigate the effect of insulation on the rate of heat loss from a plastic cup of water Aim: To investigate the change in the rate of heat loss from a plastic cup by varying the thickness of insulation surrounding the cup and to see if there is a relationship between the rate of heat loss and the thickness of insulation. Apparatus Item Purpose Plastic cup To contain the water Thermometer To measure the temperature of the water Digital Timer To allow measurement of the temperature at regular intervals Kettle To heat the water Measuring cylinder To measure the quantity of water Expanded polystyrene sheet insulation used for lining walls under wallpaper. 2mm thick To wrap around the cup in layers to insulate it Cling film To seal the top of the cup from evaporation Sellotape To hold the insulation around the cup Clamp stand and cotton To suspend the thermometer in the water so that it does not touch the sides or bottom Foam mat 20mm thick To stand the cup on so that heat is not lost through the base Water Ruler To measure thickness of 10 layers of insulation to determine the average thickness. Preliminary experiment In order to determine the probable range of results it was necessary to carry out a preliminary experiment by filling the plastic cup with water and measuring how long it took to cool. The following information was found. 1. The quantity of water to fill the cup to leave only a small air space at the top. 2. The starting temperature of the water in the cup was found to be about 85à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C so it was decided to start reading the temperatures once the temperature had fallen to 80à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C 3. It as found that it took about 25 minutes for the temperature to fall to 60à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C with no insulation. With thick insulation it would take much longer so it was decided to monitor the temperature for 30 minutes to give a good range of results. 4. It was found that it would be sufficient to take readings at one minute intervals. Otherwise at high levels of insulation the variation in temperature would be very small. 5. It was found that it was possible to measure read the temperature on the thermometer to an accuracy of about 0.25 C. 6. The preliminary experiment confirmed that the set up of the apparatus was correct with the thermometer at the right level and easy to read and that using a digital clock it was possible to time the readings accurately. Prediction I would expect that the rate at which the water cools to reduce as the insulation becomes thicker. While insulation is supposed to stop heat loss it will still act as a conductor of heat. The amount of energy transferred through a conductor is proportional to the thermal gradient. By doubling the thickness of insulation the thermal gradient is halved. So I would expect the energy lost though the insulation to reduce to half. Insulation has a strength to prevent heat loss which is measured as its U value. The U value is measured as Watts per mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ per à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C and is for a given thickness of insulation. Double the thickness and the U value will halve. Rate of heat loss = U value à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ surface area à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ temperature difference. So if the insulation doubles in thickness, the U value will halve and the rate heat loss will halve. Diagram Method Room temperature was taken using the thermometer which had been allowed to adjust to the room temperature and this was recorded. The apparatus was arranged so that a plastic cup stood on a layer of foam insulation with a thermometer suspended from a clamp stand so that the bulb of the thermometer would be hung in the middle of the water in the cup. For the first test no insulation was wrapped around the cup. For the later tests, layers of insulation were tightly wrapped around the cup using sellotape so that once the air was trapped between them none could escape. This was also done to the base of the cup. The kettle was boiled and 150mlà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of hot water was measured out using the measuring cylinder. This was then poured into the plastic cup. A piece of cling film was then stretched over the top of the cup to form a seal so that no evaporated water could escape. Square pieces of insulation (bigger than the cup) were placed on top of the cup. The number of squares depended on the number of layers of insulation being tested. A hole was pierced through the centre of the lid. A thermometer was then suspended using cotton and the clamp stand and then pushed through the hole so that the end hung in the centre of the cup. The lid was then taped down securely. When the temperature had fallen to 80 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, the stop clock was started and the temperature of the water was taken every minute for 30 minutes. The results were recorded. After the first test, the cup was emptied and two layers of insulation were fixed around the cup as described above. The test was then repeated for the two layers of insulation. Further tests were then carried out for 4, 6, 8 and 10 layers of insulation. All results were recorded. Room temperature was taken again at the end of the experiment to see if it had varied. The average thickness of the insulation was measured by measuring 10 layers and dividing the result. Fair test * The thermometer was suspended so that it did not touch the sides of the cup so that the reading was the temperature of the centre of the water. * Taking room temperature before and after the experiment to see if there had been any change which would affect the results of the experiment. * The same volume of water was used in each test. * The layers of insulation were fixed in the same way by the same person each time. * By repeating the test for a wide range of thicknesses of insulation anomalies would show up as the results are plotted. Safety * Safety glasses were worn to protect our eyes from splashes of hot water. * Gloves were worn to protect hands from the hot water * Laboratory coats were worn to help protect our bodies from the hot water. * We stood up so that if the water did spill we could move away quickly * The experiment was done under supervision. * The thermometer was suspended so that there was no risk of dropping it. * The apparatus was set up in a position where it could not easily be knocked over. Results Room temperature at start of experiment = 22.5à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C Room temperature at end of experiment = 23.0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C Table 1 Temperature change for varying thicknesses of insulation. Time in Minutes Temperature in à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C Layers 0 layers 2 layers 4 layers 6 layers 8 layers 10 layers 0 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 1 78.50 79.75 80.00 79.00 80.00 79.25 2 77.00 79.00 79.25 78.75 79.00 78.50 3 76.00 78.50 78.75 78.25 78.75 78.00 4 75.25 77.75 78.25 78.00 78.50 77.50 5 74.25 77.25 78.00 77.50 78.00 77.25 6 73.00 76.75 77.25 77.00 77.75 76.75 7 72.50 76.25 77.00 76.75 77.23 76.50 8 71.75 75.75 76.50 76.50 77.00 76.00 9 70.75 75.25 76.00 76.00 76.75 76.00 10 70.00 75.00 75.50 75.75 76.25 75.50 11 69.25 74.50 75.00 75.25 76.00 75.00 12 68.50 73.75 74.75 75.00 75.75 75.00 13 68.00 73.25 74.50 74.75 75.25 75.00 14 68.00 72.75 74.00 74.50 75.00 74.25 15 66.00 72.25 73.50 74.00 75.00 74.00 16 65.25 71.75 73.00 73.50 74.75 73.75 17 65.00 71.25 72.76 73.25 74.25 73.50 18 64.25 70.75 77.25 73.00 74.00 73.25 19 63.50 70.25 72.00 72.50 73.75 73.00 20 63.00 70.00 71.50 72.00 73.50 72.75 21 62.25 69.50 71.00 72.00 73.00 72.50 22 62.00 69.00 70.75 71.50 73.00 72.25 23 61.00 68.50 70.25 71.00 72.75 72.00 24 60.25 68.00 70.00 71.00 72.50 71.75 25 60.00 67.50 69.75 70.50 72.00 71.25 26 59.50 67.00 69.50 70.00 72.00 71.00 27 58.75 66.75 69.00 70.00 71.75 71.00 28 58.00 66.00 68.75 69.75 71.25 70.75 29 57.50 65.75 68.50 69.50 71.00 70.50 30 57.00 65.25 68.00 69.00 71.00 70.25 Energy loss after 30 minutes in Joules 14490 9292 7560 6930 5670 6142 Table 2 Temperature change at 10 minute intervals Time in Minutes Temperature in à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C Layers 0 layers 2 layers 4 layers 6 layers 8 layers 10 layers 10 10 5.00 4.5 4.25 3.75 4.5 20 17.00 10.00 18.50 8.00 6.5 7.25 30 23.00 14.75 12.00 11.00 9 9.75 Conclusion The results in Table 1 are shown graphically in Fig.1. Room temperature changed only slightly, so it will not have affected the results. From Fig 1 it is clear that the rate of heat loss from the water is reduced by increasing the amount of insulation. With no insulation the temperature fell by 23 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C in 30 minutes. With two layers this reduced to 14.75à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C in 30 minutes. Figure 1 shows that by adding more and more layers of insulation the reduction in energy reduces to a point where it changes very little and may even increase. Figure 1 also shows that the rate of loss of heat is almost a straight line but there is a slight curve. This is most clearly seen from the curve with no insulation. This is because; as the water cools the temperature differential between the water and room temperature reduces so the energy loss will reduce. The curves for the insulation are straighter because the change in temperature differential is less. Table 2 compares the reduction in temperature at 10, 20 and 30 minutes for the various thicknesses of insulation. Fig. 2 shows that the reduction in temperature reduces with the number of layers to a low point at about 8 layers and it rises again a little for 10 layers. This is not what I expected in my prediction. This is because of radiation. Insulation can be used to prevent heat loss however it does not prevent heat loss by radiation. Heat which does get through the insulation will be radiated away. The amount of radiation will depend upon the temperature differential between the outside surface of the insulation and room temperature. As the insulation gets thicker less heat passes through and the outside temperature is lower so the amount of radiation should reduce. However, with a circular cup, the surface area of the insulation increases so the amount of radiation also increased and this may be what is stopping the reduction in heat loss. The surface area without insulation is approximately 250 cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. The surface area with insulation is 620 cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ which is 2.48 times as much. The experiment suggests that there is an optimum thickness for the insulation Evaluation Accuracy Figure 1 shows the curves for the temperature readings. Some of the points do not fit on the smooth best fit curve which could be drawn through the points. This shows that there was an error in the readings for those points. However, the errors are not sufficient to affect the overall conclusions. Table 3 shows the temperature steps between each reading and Fig 3 shows the irregularities for three of the tests. With this experiment it is not possible to retake or double check readings because the temperature keeps changing. If money were no expense, it would be better to use an automatic measuring system where a computer records the readings at the exact interval rather than allowing for human response. A digital thermometer would be used to record the temperature because it could readings of 0.1 of a degree rather than 0.25. From the results in Fig 1, I can see that the time at which the clock is started at 80à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C is very critical because the temperature is only falling at about 1/2 a degree Celsius per minute. This could lead to an error of about 2 minutes. This could possibly explain the discrepancy between 8 and 10 layers. Further investigation I would like to investigate the effect of adding even more insulation to see if the rate of loss of energy increases due to the increase in surface area increasing the amount of radiation. I would do this because as you can see in Fig 2. The curve begins to slope up showing an increase in change of temperature. I would like to investigate this further and see if this trend continues with more layers of insulation. The experiment could also be repeated for different temperature ranges between the water and room temperature.